WATER MANAGEMENT IN FISH FARMING

Water is the basic factor decides the life and growth of the fishes stocked in it. For culture fish to perform well, good quality water must be guaranteed. Water quality are parameters or characteristics either physical, chemical or biological of water body which determine the suitability of it for fish production and other culture species e.g. shrimps prawn.

Water qualities usually induce by the water;

·         Source

·         Location

·         Nutrient level

·         The component organisms

Thus, it become essential to make detail PHYSICO-CHEMICAL and BIOLOGICAL analysis of water to access the quality of the water to be used before the establishment of a  fish farm.

Water quality maintenance is a primary concern for a fish culturist because the poor management of his pond may result in high mortality of the culture species. For example if there’s sudden reduction in oxygen content of the water or sharp decrease in the PH the culture fish would be stressed –up and proned to disease and poor growth rate.

WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY DETERMINE STOCK – DENSITY

The available water quality and quantity is the predetermine factor of fish which can be produced.

To achieve calculated profit pond, water must be well managed and sustained. A fish farmer should consult only professional aqua culturist or limnology in the initial setting up period to determine the various level of the important water quality parameter of his pond. And how to manage it for result. The most important water parameters to be considered for fish production are:

1.       Dissolved oxygen (3mg/l to saluration)

2.       PH

3.       SALINITY (SALT CONTENT) 0.5

4.       Water  Temperature 25-30oc

5.       Ammonia <0.002   

6.       General hardness 20-80

7.       Carbonate hardness 20-80

8.       Chlorine <0.003

9.       Turbidity 30-50cm (light penetration)

10.   Hydrogen sulphide <0.003

11.   Total dissolved solid (TDS) <200mg/l

12.   Total suspended solid (TSS) <50

13.   Fe 0.00

14.   Microbial levels (Pathogen)

However, it is necessary to bear it in mind that various parameter internet with other.

MONITORING AND MAINTAINANCE GOOD QUALITY POND WATER

PH Factor :- Degree of alkalinity and acidic of the pond is very crucial as it will have influence on other factors. Generally, fish performance well in the PH range of 6.7-8.6 and below or above the range inhabit growth and production, the extend of this depend on the species cultured and control condition. The death points are approximately below and above PH 4 and PH 11, Critical minimum PH level for most fish to survive is 4.5

Acidic water affects production, for instance Tilapia would refuse to fecund at low PH. Low Ph reduces oxidation of plant and animal by balancing activity.

Water containing Fe(iron) above 0.9ppm would rise the PH to 5.5 because Fe are hydroxide deposited on the fish gills thereby suffocating the fish and death results. Any sudden change in the PH indirectly affect the fish by instituting the onset of stress condition which lower the fish immunity and predispose the fish to clinical and sub clinical condition.

CORRECTING POND WATER PH

In fish farming industrials polluted water should be avoided in totally except when treated which add more to the cost.

LIMING:-PH of pond water is better corrected by the application of lime. However, water analysis is imperative in order to know the quality of lime needed to correct the water PH. Factor determine  the dose of lime to be applied are:- Ph level of the water (2) Chemical composition of the liming material (3) Type of the Lime

                    HANDS ON PRACIUCAL IN BREEDING OF CATFISH

 Induced breading and artificial fertilization in clarias gariepinus

collection of brood stock- parent fishes – sources

              Natural                                          culture

                Selection of brood fish – for successful breeding  

Genital pore                                                                          Female – well round soft abdomen

                                                                                                        Reddish & projected

                                                                                                Male – elongated and slender in shape

Genital                                                                                                         papilla elongated

                   Rearing of brood fish

Water quality                                           Nutrient

     Inducement – why

    Hormone injection

                                                       Ova tide @ 0.5ml/kg

     After 10 hrs stripping of ripe eggs

     Sacrifices the male and dissection out of tests (milt) from male

Over the                                                                                     Dilute in 0.9%saline solution spread

                                                                                                       Collected eggs

Min                            Artificial fertilization – Mix well-allow 2 minutes – mix for 5

                                                                                                Egg + milt  

                                                Fertilization  eggs are spread in single layer in the hatching tank

The eggs                                                                              Allow gentle water flow –not to disturb

                                           Egg will hatch out after 24-36 hours depending on the

temperature                                                               

                           Feeding commences 72 hrs after hatching – when the mouth is seen                                                   

                                                                                   (i) artemia (ii) Daphnia (iii) Rotifers (iv) Mino

                            Dead egg should be removed in the process of development  

                                   

                                                     Rearing the fry in the hatchery

                    FILTRATION AND FILTER APPARATUS IN INTENSIVE FISH FARMING.

         Why filtration is essential in intensive fish farming?

          Intensive fish farming involve the two following things

1.       High stocking density of fish per sq.m, resulting in the high biomass per cu.m of water

2.       High feeding rate with great quantum of feed- to feed the fishes in the tank.

These two things lead to the following conditions in the tank water:

1.       High production of fecal matter from the fishes

2.       Uneaten feed and dissolved feed particles in the water

3.       High release of CO2  through respiration

4.       High intake of Oxygen from the water by the fishes

5.       High production of nitrogenous waste such as Ammonia and Nitrogen compound through the urine, fecal matter, decomposition of high protein feeds and through microbial decomposition ( enzymes from microbes and fecal enzymes).

6.       Enriched mucus secreted by the fish body

The above condition and enriched matter make the water unfit for the fishes. This makes the Fishes to undergo great street and changes in the body physiology so as to use much of the energy ingested to maintain the body growth .

So the ultimate results are – (1) Poor growth or no growth, (2) Disease outbreak due to varied microbial colonies develop in the water due to accumulation o impurities, and (3) Sudden mass mortality.

To avoid all the above adverse conditions, it is necessary to keep the water lean. Cleaning the tank and providing good and favorable culture conditions is possible in two ways

1.       Completely changing the water almost daily

2.       Filtering the water and reuse  

        Advantages and Disadvantages of both the method

The complete exchange of water
Merits	Demerits
Completely pure water available for the fishes daily	The change is done only after accumulation of the wastes. So the fishes have to live in the bad water for more time before getting the pure water
Ensures good living environment for the fishes	Change of water involves considerable expenses everyday
	Change of water causes considerable stress to the fishes due to complete removal of the water.
	The basic ecosystem is disturbed so that the natural conditions have to be created every time changing the water
	The major reason is that the mineral and vitamins leached into the water during the feeding and decomposition of the fecal matter will be lost when water is drained out daily

The filtration of tank water
Merits	Demerits
Filtration gives a continuous movement of the water, which is considered good for the fishes as that of the running water (steam).	Filtration process involves apparatus and equipment necessary for different types o filtration. So it involves cost .
Ensures good living environment for the fishes through the water movement. The waste accumulated is removed then and there so the fishes do not expose to waste accumulated conditions	Continuous monitoring of the filters is necessary choking of the filters and pipelines should be avoided through continuous monitoring.
The oxygenated due to the water splashing in the filtration process help the loading of oxygen  in the tank water	There will be a loss of water up to 5% everyday which should be compensated
Completely pure water available for the fishes continuously without any break.
No stress for the fishes as they are not kept out of water any time
The natural condition is preserved as the same water is used continuously
The system is always rich in oxygen with reduced nitrogenous and gaseous wastes
The bio-filter oxidizes the nitrogenous waste to very useful nitrates thereby the nutrients are enriched in the system for the fishes
The UV radiation and ozone treatment help the water to be free from all germs and pathogens as they kill all the micro organisms
The mineral and vitamins leached into the water during the feeding and decomposition of the fecal matter will be available to the fishes always, as this water is not removed from the system.

So it is clear from the above that filtration of the tank water is better for the intensive farming of fishes over the change of water daily and therefore

What are the components of a filtration system in the intensive farming ?

The following are the components of a filtration system in the intensive fish farming

1.       Screen filter – to remove the big solid matter – not necessary for the system where feed alone is the daily input.

2.       Sediment filter- to remove the suspended solid matter (fecal matter. Uneaten feed, etc in colloidal mass) – This can be either sedimentation chamber or rotary filter or drum filter or multiple screen filter or fluidized bed or rapid flow sand filter or any suitable filter.,

3.       Clarifiers – to clarify the water and reduce the mineral and element level in the water accumulating due to various biological and biochemical activities

4.       Bio filter- to remove the dissolved gases and ammonia –very much necessary where high nitrogen matter (high protein ) is used – This can be achieved through fabricated bio-filter or bead filter loaded with beneficial microbes

5.       UV irradiation – to kill the bacteria, fungi and viral pathogens in the water

6.       Ozonation – to kill the germs and oxidize the dissolved organic matter so that the load or organic carbon is reduced drastically.

7.       PH. Adjuster -  to keep the Ph in optimum level of 8.2 to 8.5 for better growth and metabolism

In addition to the above, sponge filter to remove the solids can also be used in the place of Screen filter

Fish tank

How the filtration system is fabricated (water flow chart) in the intensive fish farm.

 

 

   

What are the principle that are being adopted in the filtration system in then intensive fish farming of fishes and what are the advantages of the principles and the apparatus used for tat

The principles used/applied in the filtration system are,

1.       Removal of coarse suspended matter – this is done by screen or sponge filter.

2.       Removal of fine suspended matter – this is done in sedimentation tank of rotary belt filter, drum filter or sand filter.

3.       Removal of minerals and elements –this is done by clarifiers

4.       Removal of harmful gases and ammonia – this is done by bio – filtration

5. Remove of harmful bacteria’s and other micro organism – done by UV radiation and Ozonation.

The advantages of the principle:

1.       All the above principle is with application of the only physical and biological method of filtration and not the chemical methods. This is the greatest advantage, as the water filtration will not have any harmful chemicals.

2.       The water is pure as that of fresh new water without any micro organisms like bacteria, fungi and viruses.

3.       The water is enriched with nutrients (nitrates) after bio – filtration, which will be more harmful for the fishes.

4.       Oxygen is enriched in the water, so that anaerobic condition will not arise in the water.

How the different filter component are useful in the intensive fish farming.

Screen / Sponge filter: This filter is less applied in the intensive fish farming rearing system, as this filter is much used in the sewage and surface water filtering, which may contain big floating or coarse suspending materials.

Sediment filter: The major function of this filter is the fine and tiny suspended solids can be removed by the process called “sedimentation “The multi chambered sediment tanks constructed below the bottom level of the culture thanks affect this .This positioning will give the higher velocity for the water flowing into the chamber, which will enhance the settling of the solid particles. The heavier solid particles are sedimented  in the first and second chambers of the tanks and the clear water from the top is allowed to go to the next chamber for further clarification.

Clarifiers: This is generally not required for the low level intensive fish farming operations, particularly when the catfishes are reared, as they can tolerate high minerals in the water. But most effective in the case of intensive fish farming of the Tilapia and Bass. Naturally aquatic plant will be used in the tank for the removal and clarification of the fish tank water after removal of solids.

Bio – filters: The most important components in any water filtration system, as it alone remove the dissolved gasses and harmful ammonia from the water.

The fish tank water is, by nature loaded with the gasses (CO2 ) due to respiration and ammonia ( NH3 ) as the resultant product of the excretion . In addition to the above harmful gasses like H2S and SO2 are also added to the water due to microbial degradation of the organic matter. These gasses are VERY HARMFUL to the fishes as they are not to be expected to the conditions. Therefore they are to be removed.

In bio – filters, first the water will be passed through the wool filter or sand filter to remove the tiny particles, which might not be deposited in the sedimentation chamber .After this, the water will be allowed to pass through the activated charcoal (activated carbon) The minute pores and large surface area in the charcoal helps in the absorption of the gasses from the water thereby the gasses are removed.

After this the water will be passed through ceramic rings or ceramic tubes, which will remove any excess gasses left by the charcoal. After the complete removal of the gasses, the water is passed through bio – media (bio – balls or bio – fibers or bio – coils). The Nitrifying bacteria’s such as nitrosomonas and nitrobacter present in the bio-media will oxidize the ammonia in the water to nitrite and then nitrates. Thus the water is fully cleaned of all obnoxious gases and ammonia. After the water will be allowed to pass the UV chamber.

UV Radiation: The water will be passed over the UV light inside the UV chamber, where the UV radiation will kill the bacteria that might be carried in the water. This is a disinfecting action.

Ozonation: Ozone generated in the ozone processor will be supplied into the water so that all the germs and cysts will be killed. (Ozone is a highly reactive gas, which will penetrate into the cells of the micro-organism and kill them) In addition to the disinfection, the dissolved organic matter in the water will be removed by the oxidation property of the ozone. This is an additional disinfection measure, which will ensure removal of all pathogens completely and enrich the system with oxygen for oxidation of the organic matter.

Ph Adjuster: This is an optional component in the filtration system, when the PH of the water is tilted to unfavorable level. Due to the loading of so much organic matter, the resultant decomposed products shift the PH to lower level (about 6 to 7) The basic PH (8.5) should be restored for better growth of fishes by adding the diluted basic solution. However, only based on water quantity this will be added in the filtration system.

FEEDING PRACTICE AND SPECIFICATION

Culture Days                      Expected Weight                             Feed Type

20 – 45                                  50 – 100g                                             CP 58% Fat 12%

45 – 65                                  105 – 250g                                           CP 46% Fat 12%

66 – 85                                  250 – 500g                                           CP 46% Fat 12%

85 – 105                                500 – 750g                                           CP 40% Fat 10%

106 – 125                             750 – 1000g                                         CP 35% Fat 8%

126 – 145                             > – 1000g                                             CP 30% Fat 8%

1.            This recommendation is based on optimal water quality (PH, 02) Nitrate and Ammonia level and right stock density and temperature.

2.            This specification is only a guideline for using DARMO – AQUAMASTER feel formula.

3.            Feeding and feed could be adjusted based on water factors and growth performances.

4.            Water management is most singular factor for feed cost benefit.

5.            Give your fish split feeding 31/2 hrs, 2 hrs for adult, young fish respectively.

6.            Consult only experienced aqua cultural professional for effective design and management practices.

7.            Stock your pond with quality fish seed from a reputable hatchery.

POND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

VOLUME 1

FLOW –THROUGH POND DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

BASIC PRINCIPLE

FLOW THROUGH TANK CULTURE SYSTEM:

Flow –Through Culture System: is a simple technology where by water will be coming in and going out of the tank. It could be made of block or concrete.

In this system the pond is constructed with either block or concrete with the necessary facilities.

The pond could be subrnerged or surface type. However, the surface tank is preferable for cost effective water drainage.

The system is simple to manage and homestead type. It has the following advantage

ADVANTAGE OF FLOW – THROUGH TANK CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

1.       Its cost effective where there is cheap source of water

2.       No loss of water due to seepage. Only evaporation loss

3.       All a biotic factors can  be controlled and checked

4.       Predators could be totally eliminated

5.       Complete control over the stock is possible

6.       Medication or  the therapeutic attempts will be very possible    

7.       Stock density is higher 50-100 fish/m3

DISADVANTAGE OF FLOW -   THROUGH TANK CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

1.       More skilled management and technical knowledge is essential achieve success in the farming

2.       All nutrients need to be supplies

3.       Water discharge problem 

LAND

The topography of the soil must be considered. Physical features of the soil like soil structure, texture

ENGINEERING DESIGN AND POND CONTRUCTION

A modern and complete catfish pond is composed of different units

1.       Brood fish tank 

2.       Hatchery tanks

3.       Nursery and fingerling rearing tanks

4.       Grow – out production tank

BROOD STOCK FISH TANKS

The brood stocks, which product for starting new generation of fish, must be adequately catered for. Smaller ponds are advisable for easy harvesting and selection of the brooders. Pond size of 200m2 – 100m2 is recommended. However the number,size and species of brooder in choice of the size of the pond.

For concrete or hollow blocks tank –a dimension of 6m*1.5m*1.5m could be adequate in the concrete tanks, water parameter must be monitored regular for good result.

Brood fishpond should be located where good security is and does not involve transportation problem during operation.

HATCHERY TANKS

This is a collection of tanks or containers where ripe breeders for induced spawning are kept. It could be made from wooden plank, concrete or glass fibre or plastic  bowl. The bottom of the basin should slope gradually toward drain (outlet) turndown pipe should be fixed for regulating the water level.

(1*0.680.40) m for 3-4 brooders will be adequate. Here the fish can easily be taken for stripping without too much disturbance. 

INCUBATION TANK

Construct the pond with concrete, wooden or fiberglass materials ease of management, a dimension of 3m* 1m * 0.3m will be adequate. The floor should slope gently toward the outlet fixed with turn- down or adjustable pipe for easy drainage

NURSERY TANKS (PONDS)

The number of thanks to be constructed depends on the scope of the project. It could also be constructed with concrete (blocks, graveled cement) wooden or fiberglass material. A dimension of (3*2.5*0.6) m this will take a minimum of 10,000 fingerlings at stocking density of 1300 fingerlings/sqm. Like the other tanks it should be sloped gently towards outlets – the tank should also be provided with shade.

GROW –OUT TANKS/POND

The grow out pond may be earthen pond or concrete or fiberglass pond. A grow out concrete wall. A dimension of (6*1.5*1.5) m is suitable for 1500- 1600 fish up to table size of 1kg. a breath of 1.5m was chosen to allow for easy cleaning of feed remnant as solid waste during water change. The bottom of the pond should be slope by 11 inches towards the outlet. All the corner of the pond that is right angle be rounded off to enhance self –cleaning in the tank.

The following procedure could be used as a guide in constructing concrete as fishponds

ü  Select the site and clear

ü  Peg out the desired dimension of hatchery, nursery or grow out and demarcate using twine or rope

ü  Dig up the foundation by removing the topsoil of humus and organic debris until a solid sub soil is obtained. It could between 6 inches to 1 –foot depth.

ü  Do the binding of the floor by pouring a concrete mixture of cement, sand and gravel mixed water in the ratio 1:2:4 and one of 2kg pudlo waterproof cement and make the thickness to be between 3-6 inches. Allow to dry for one week. The should be larger than the tank for distribution of weight

ü  Make block wall along the 4 sides of the pond rising 6 or 9 inches specially made (i.e mould 18-22 blocks from one bag of cement) the wall should be extended to maximum height to 30cm, 60cm or 150cm for hatchery, nursery grow out tank respectively

ü  During flooring slope the tank towards the outlet by eleven inches using the same concrete mixture mentioned above       

ü  Lay 1 or 4 inches diameter P.V.C as the case may be as drainage pipe at the outlet. Attached with elbow and screen and let it terminate outside the tank as turn down o adjustable pipe such that it can be used as discharge pipe for varying water level (flow through system)

Fill the hollows of the block with concrete and plaster both inner and outer walls of the tank (pond). The Thickness of the plastering should be 1 inch using a mixing ratio of 1 one bag of cement to 6 head pans of sand and 2 bags pudlo waterproof cement. Allow the tank to dry out slowly by providing it with shade while wetting daily twice for a week.

TANKS WITH CONCRETE WALLS

Where concrete wall is used, the entire walls and base must be reinforced with rod. The reinforcement material should have continuity with that if the walls. Plastering must have smooth surface and the right angled joints should be rounded off it makes cleaning easier and algae, bacterial and protozoan growth

Ø  Concrete pouring work must be continued until it is completed day so that concrete does not dry out in section. As this could result in cracks and leakages later at the various point

Ø  It is important to cure or age new tank before usage. This is done by filling the tank with water and placed bags of poultry dropping into it and allows to stand for two weeks. The resultant algae bloom and the change of water will wash away the toxic materials of the cement in the tank if the curing is not proper, process could be repeated for another two weeks.

Ø  The ponds should be provided with roofs to shield it form direct sunlight which could lead to unhealthy fluctuations in the temperature of the pond water     

FISHERY

fisheries. From earliest times and in practically all countries, fisheries have been of industrial and commercial importance. In the large N Atlantic fishing grounds off Newfoundland and Labrador, for example, European and North American fishing fleets have long taken cod, herring, haddock, flounder, and mackerel; the recent collapse of some of these stocks has been devastating to local economies. Worldwide, the most important catches include herring, smelt, cod, haddock, perch, tuna, mackerel, salmon, trout, shrimp, smelt, and flounder. The annual world catch of fish averaged more than 100 million tons in the 1990s, when it leveled off after increasing significantly since World War II. China, by far the world's leading fishing country, has had about 25% of this total, while the United States has averaged about 5% of the world catch. Per capita consumption of fish and shellfish in the United States averages about 15 pounds.

Commercial Fishing Methods

The commercial methods chiefly used-each with a great variety of modifications-employ encircling nets (purse seine, haul seine, trawl seine), entangling nets (gill and trammel), lines, and traps (for lobster and crab). Trawlers and purse boats take most commercial catches. After World War II, Japan and Russia (formerly the Soviet Union) began operating factory ships that freeze or can fish shortly after they are caught; such innovations allowed fishing fleets to move from offshore areas to the open ocean. The drying, canning, salting, and preserving of fish comprise a vast industry with, in addition, the manufacture of numerous byproducts, including glue, fertilizer, and in Asia, fish sauces.

Control of Fishing Rights

Because of the economic importance of the industry, numerous disputes have developed over fishing rights. Increasingly concerns about over fishing, pollution, and declining fish catches have forced governments to pass measures designed to protect and conserve this resource. In the United States, domestic fisheries are generally governed by state regulations, except where the Constitution provides for national control as a result of the treaty-making power and the regulation of navigation, customs, and interstate commerce. State fishery legislation is generally designed to protect the fisheries by regulating the way fish are caught, imposing catch limits, closing some waters to commercial fishing, reducing the times when fishing is legal, and protecting certain species. National governments generally restrict fishing rights within territorial waters to citizens and may establish jurisdiction over portions of the open sea, but the right to take products from the high seas is a subject for international agreements.

History of Fisheries Regulation

Fisheries have occupied an important place in the economic structure of many countries throughout history. The Black Sea fisheries formed an important source of Phoenician and Greek income; Spanish and Sicilian waters yielded fish for Rome; the economy of the Hanseatic League was partly based on the North Sea herring fisheries; cod fishing was a chief industry of New England; and fisheries in the Pacific are vital to Japan. For that reason fishing rights have long been the basis of controversy. In the modern age such disputes have generally been settled by arbitration or by treaties. Fishing rights that had been enjoyed by the American colonists on the entire Atlantic coast were confirmed in the Treaty of Paris (1783), but the right to dry fish on the Newfoundland coast and on the settled parts of the Labrador and Nova Scotian coasts (except by agreement with the inhabitants) was expressly denied. The outbreak of the War of 1812 led to a new treaty (1818) that further restricted American rights. This convention was replaced by the reciprocity treaty of 1854, which abolished all restrictions except for shellfish. But disputes continued until 1910, when the North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Arbitration at The Hague ended the prolonged controversy. Canada and the United States in 1923 and 1930 signed agreements regulating the halibut fisheries of the N Pacific. In 1882 Great Britain, Germany, France, Denmark, and Belgium signed the North Sea Fisheries Convention, which ended lawlessness in that area by granting a mutual right of visit, search, and arrest to the public vessels of the treaty powers. A similar treaty, regulating the fishing banks off Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, was signed by Great Britain and Denmark in 1901, and three years later Anglo-French rights in the N Atlantic were set forth in a convention. The fisheries of the Pacific have also been the subject of many international agreements, such as the Japanese right to fish in specified sections of Siberian waters, first granted by the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 and continued by later agreements. To stabilize international rules governing national rights in the oceans, the United Nations convened the Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1974; one of its concerns was to protect fisheries. The oceans have long been used as a dumping ground, but pollution levels in the open seas as well as coastal areas have risen sharply, thus endangering fisheries. Another threat has been overfishing, which in some areas has severely depleted the available catch; major predatory species such as sharks, tuna, and cod-which are also highly desirable as food fish-dropped by the early 21st cent. to a third of their levels 100 years before. In 1996 the U.S. federal government imposed strict limits on fishing in the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank, in order to protect the declining New England fishing industry; in 1999 restrictions were imposed along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts in an attempt to conserve depleted stocks of shark, tuna, and marlin. Overfishing is not limited to seas off developed nations; the Java Sea in Indonesia, for example, has been fished to the point where local fishermen cannot count on a catch sufficient to feed their families. For many years, most countries recognized a 12-mi exclusive fisheries zone, but the rise of fleets of factory ships that could catch and process huge quantities of fish severely reduced catches. The Law of the Sea Treaty (1983) established a 200-mi limit inside which countries had the exclusive right to regulate fishing, and in 1997 the United States set a 200-mi territorial zone to protect its fisheries. The United Nations sponsored (1999) a nonbinding agreement among seafaring nations to address the problem of over fishing worldwide by reducing the size of their fishing fleets. International efforts to protect marine resources have also involved whaling. The International Whaling Commission outlawed most whaling in 1986, but some countries have refused to comply.